CPU history

The central processing unit (CPU) is the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a computer program, to perform the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. The CPU plays a role somewhat analogous to the brain in the computer. On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single silicon chip called a microprocessor. Modern CPUs are large scale integrated circuits in packages typically less than four centimeters square, with hundreds of connecting pins.
An array processor or vector processor has multiple parallel computing elements, with no one unit considered the "center". Since the term "CPU" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.
It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949.^[2]Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. With von Neumann's design, the program, or software, that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory.
Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind, computer. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas. The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but elements of the Harvard architecture are commonly seen as well.
Relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches. Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.^[1]The control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions. The control unit must communicate with both the arithmetic/logic unit and memory. The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices. CPUs based upon these "building block" ICs are generally referred to as "small-scale integration" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo guidance computer, usually contained up to a few score transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs. As microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, thus decreasing the quantity of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI (medium- and large-scale integration) ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands.
In 1964 IBM introduced its System/360 computer architecture which was used in a series of computers that could run the same programs with different speed and performance. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.^[4]
Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear.

Blogger History

Blogger is a blog-publishing service that allows private or multi-user blogs with time-stamped entries. Generally, the blogs are hosted by Google at a subdomain of blogspot.com. Up until May 1, 2010 Blogger allowed users to publish blogs on other hosts, via FTP. On August 23, 1999, Blogger was launched by Pyra Labs. In February 2003, Pyra Labs was acquired by Google under undisclosed terms. In October 2004, Pyra Labs' co-founder, Evan Williams, left Google. In 2004, Google purchased Picasa; it integrated Picasa and its photo sharing utility Hello into Blogger, allowing users to post photos to their blogs.
On May 9, 2004, Blogger introduced a major redesign, adding features such as web standards-compliant templates, individual archive pages for posts, comments, and posting by email. On August 14, 2006, Blogger launched its latest version in beta, codenamed "Invader", alongside the gold release. By May 2007, Blogger had completely moved over to Google operated servers.

As part of the Blogger redesign in 2006, all blogs associated with a user's Google Account were migrated to Google servers. New features are discussed in the service's official blog.

In September 2009, Google introduced new features into Blogger as part of its tenth anniversary celebration. The features included a new interface for post editing, improved image handling, Raw HTML Conversion, and other Google Docs-based implementations, including:

Vertical re-sizing of the post editor. Link editing in Compose mode.

New toolbar with Google aesthetics, faster loading time, and "undo" and "redo" buttons. In 2010, Blogger introduced new templates and redesigned its website. The Google Toolbar has a feature called "BlogThis!" which allows toolbar users with Blogger accounts to post links directly to their blogs.

"Blogger for Word" is an add-in for Microsoft Word which allows users to save a Microsoft Word Document directly to a Blogger blog, as well as edit their posts both on- and offline. As of January 2007, Google says "Blogger for Word is not currently compatible with the new version of Blogger", and they state no decision has been made about supporting it with the new Blogger.^[9]Blogger supports Google's AdSense service as a way of generating revenue from running a blog.

Blogger offers multiple author support, making it possible to establish group blogs.

Blogger offers a template editing feature, which allows users to customize the Blogger template.

Google Docs has direct publishing integration to Blogger.

Windows Live Writer, a standalone app of the Windows Live suite, publishes directly to Blogger.

Kazakhstan

Syrian Arab Republic

Zip Code

ZIP codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service (USPS) since 1963. An extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in the 1980s, includes the five digits of the ZIP code, a hyphen, and four more digits that determine a more precise location than the ZIP code alone.

Simultaneously with the introduction of the ZIP code, two-letter state abbreviations were introduced. ^[3] The post office gives credit to Moon for only the first three digits of the ZIP code, which describe the sectional center facility (SCF) or "sec center." An SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP codes. The mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. The United States Post Office used a cartoon character, whom it called Mr. ZIP, to promote use of the ZIP code.

In 1983, the U.S. Postal Service began using an expanded ZIP code system that it called ZIP+4, often called "plus-four codes", "add-on codes", or "add ons".
A ZIP+4 code uses the basic five-digit code plus four additional digits to identify a geographic segment within the five-digit delivery area, such as a city block, a group of apartments, an individual high-volume receiver of mail or any other unit that could use an extra identifier to aid in efficient mail sorting and delivery. For post-office boxes, the general (but not invariable) rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster (to which requests for pictorial cancellations are usually addressed), 9999 for general delivery and other high-numbered add-on codes for business reply mail.^{[citation needed]} For a unique ZIP code (explained below), the add-on code is typically 0001.
For example ZIP code 42223 spans Christian KY and Montgomery TN, and ZIP code 97635 spans Lake OR and Modoc CA.
A sectional center facility may have more than one three-digit code assigned to it. For example, the Northern Virginia sectional center facility in Merrifield is assigned codes 220, 221, 222 and 223. The lowest ZIP code is in Holtsville, New York (00501, a ZIP code exclusively for the U.S. Internal Revenue Service center there). Other low ZIP codes are 00601 for Adjuntas, Puerto Rico; 01001 for Agawam, Massachusetts, and 01002 for Amherst, Massachusetts.

Despite the geographic derivation of most ZIP codes, the codes themselves do not represent geographic regions; in general, they correspond to address groups or delivery routes. For example, some residents in or near Haubstadt, Indiana, which has the zip code 47639, have mailing addresses with 47648, the ZIP code for neighboring Fort Branch, Indiana, while others living in or near Fort Branch have addresses with 47639. While the White House itself is located in ZIP code 20006, it has the ZIP code 20500. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is located in Rockville, Maryland, at ZIP code 20852, but has been assigned by the Postal Service the address "Washington, DC 20555".

In rare circumstances, a locality is assigned a ZIP code that does not match the rest of the state; in other words, a ZIP code may cross state lines. Fishers Island, New York, bears the ZIP code 06390 and is served from Connecticut — all other New York ZIP codes (excepting those at Holtsville for the IRS) begin with "1".

Some Texas ZIP codes are served from New Mexico (most notably some El Paso ZIP codes) and thus bear codes beginning with "885" (contiguous numerically with 870-884 NM) rather than "799".

Fort Campbell (ZIP code 42223), primarily in Kentucky, main entrance is in Tennessee.

In essence the mail for the Kenton County Airport Board has an Ohio ZIP code but the physical address of the airport is a Kentucky ZIP code.

History of Book

A single sheet within a book is called a leaf, and each side of a leaf is called a page. A book produced in electronic format is known as an electronic book (e-book).
The body of all written works including books is literature. In novels and sometimes other types of books (for example, biographies), a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books (Book 1, Book 2, Book 3, and so on). Books can also be borrowed from libraries. ^[4] Similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense (bound and with separate leaves), originally meant "block of wood".
^[5] Papyrus sheets were glued together to form a scroll. The Greek word for papyrus as writing material (biblion) and book (biblos) come from the Phoenician port town Byblos, through which papyrus was exported to Greece.^[7]Whether made from papyrus, parchment, or paper, scrolls were the dominant form of book in the Hellenistic, Roman, Chinese, and Hebrew cultures. The more modern codex book format form took over the Roman world by late antiquity, but the scroll format persisted much longer in Asia.
In the 5th century, Isidore of Seville explained the relation between codex, book and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13): "A codex is composed of many books; a book is of one scroll. The tradition and style of the Roman Empire still dominated, but slowly the peculiar medieval book culture emerged.
Before the invention and adoption of the printing press, almost all books were copied by hand, which made books expensive and comparatively rare.

Calligraphers, who dealt in fine book production

Finally, the book was bound by the bookbinder.

Irish monks introduced spacing between words in the 7th century. The first books used parchment or vellum (calf skin) for the pages. The book covers were made of wood and covered with leather. At first, books were copied mostly in monasteries, one at a time. With the rise of universities in the 13th century, the Manuscript culture of the time led to an increase in the demand for books, and a new system for copying books appeared. The books were divided into unbound leaves (pecia), which were lent out to different copyists, so the speed of book production was considerably increased. A number of cities in the medieval Islamic world had book production centers and book markets. The medieval Islamic world also used a method of reproducing reliable copies of a book in large quantities, known as check reading, in contrast to the traditional method of a single scribe producing only a single copy of a single manuscript. Modern paper books are printed on papers which are designed specifically for the publication of printed books. Typically, books papers are light weight papers 60 to 90 g/m² and often specified by their caliper/substance ratios (volume basis). This volume basis then allows the calculation of a books PPI (printed pages per inch) which is an important factor for the design of book jackets and the binding of the finished book. Different paper qualities are used as book paper depending on type of book: Machine finished coated papers, woodfree uncoated papers, coated fine papers and special fine papers are common paper grades.

Mapping

Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any space, real or imagined, without regard to context or scale; e.g. brain mapping, DNA mapping, and extraterrestrial mapping.
Road maps are perhaps the most widely used maps today, and form a subset of navigational maps, which also include aeronautical and nautical charts, railroad network maps, and hiking and bicycling maps.

The orientation of a map is the relationship between the directions on the map and the corresponding compass directions in reality. In the Middle Ages many maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with East at the top (meaning that the direction "up" on the map corresponds to East on the compass). Several kinds of maps are often traditionally not oriented with North at the top:

Maps from non-Western traditions are oriented a variety of ways. Old maps of Edo show the Japanese imperial palace as the "top", but also at the centre, of the map. Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe.

Typical maps of the Arctic have 0° meridian towards the bottom of the page; maps of the Antarctic have the 0° meridian towards the top of the page.

Reversed maps, also known as Upside-Down maps or South-Up maps, reverse the "North is up" convention and have South at the top.

• Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion maps are based on a projection of the Earth's sphere onto an icosahedron. Modern digital GIS maps such as ArcMap typically project north at the top of the map, but use math degrees (0 is east, degrees increase counter-clockwise), rather than compass degrees (0 is north, degrees increase clockwise) for orientation of transects.

Large scale maps, say 1:10,000, cover relatively small regions in great detail and small scale maps, say 1:10,000,000, cover large regions such as nations, continents and the whole globe. Examples of large scale maps are the 1:25,000 maps produced for hikers; on the other hand maps intended for motorists at 1:250,000 or 1:1,000,000 are small scale.
The same applies to computer maps where the smallest unit is the pixel. Some maps, called cartograms, have the scale deliberately distorted to reflect information other than land area or distance. Near the center of the map stations are spaced out more than near the edges of map.

Maps of the world or large areas are often either 'political' or 'physical'. Topographic maps show elevations and relief with contour lines or shading. Perhaps the best-known world-map projection is the Mercator projection, originally designed as a form of nautical chart.

The functionality of maps has been greatly advanced by technology simplifying the superimposition of spatially located variables onto existing geographical maps.

replacing the map by a more detailed one

Printer Device

Printers that include non-printing features are sometimes called multifunction printers (MFP), multi-function devices (MFD), or all-in-one (AIO) printers. Local printers are also increasingly taking over the process of photofinishing as digital photo printers become commonplace. Printers are routinely classified by the printer technology they employ; numerous such technologies have been developed over the years. Solid ink printers, also known as phase-change printers, are a type of thermal transfer printer. Solid ink printers are most commonly used as colour office printers, and are excellent at printing on transparencies and other non-porous media. Solid ink printers can produce excellent results. Acquisition and operating costs are similar to laser printers. Previously, solid ink printers were manufactured by Tektronix, but Tek sold the printing business to Xerox in 2001 A dye-sublimation printer (or dye-sub printer) is a printer which employs a printing process that uses heat to transfer dye to a medium such as a plastic card, paper or canvas. While once the province of high-end print shops, dye-sublimation printers are now increasingly used as dedicated consumer photo printers. The impact printer uses a print head that hits the surface of the ink ribbon, which presses the ink onto the paper. All but the dot matrix printer rely on the use of formed characters, letterforms that represent each of the characters that the printer was capable of printing. Impact printers varieties include, typewriter-derived printers, teletypewriter-derived printers, daisy wheel printers, dot matrix printers and line printers.

Ballistic wire printers (discussed in the dot matrix printers article)

Stored energy printers

24-pin print heads were able to print at a higher quality. Once the price of inkjet printers dropped to the point where they were competitive with dot matrix printers, dot matrix printers began to fall out of favor for general use.

Some dot matrix printers, such as the NEC P6300, can be upgraded to print in colour. Colour graphics are generally printed in four passes at standard resolution, thus slowing down printing considerably. Dot-matrix printers are now (as of 2005) rapidly being superseded even as receipt printers.

Line printers, as the name implies, print an entire line of text at a time. In drum printers, a drum carries the entire character set of the printer repeated in each column that is to be printed. In chain printers, also known as train printers, the character set is arranged multiple times around a chain that travels horizontally past the print line. Comb printers, also called line matrix printers, represent the third major design. These printers were a hybrid of dot matrix printing and line printing. Because far less motion was involved than in a conventional dot matrix printer, these printers were very fast compared to dot matrix printers and were competitive in speed with formed-character line printers while also being able to print dot matrix graphics.
Line printers were the fastest of all impact printers and were used for bulk printing in large computer centres.

Uninterruptible Power Supply

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically mains power, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide instantaneous or near-instantaneous protection from input power interruptions by means of one or more attached batteries and associated electronic circuitry for low power users, and or by means of diesel generators and flywheels for high power users.

Common power problems

The primary role of any UPS is to provide short-term power when the input power source fails. However, most UPS units are also capable in varying degrees of correcting common utility power problems:

Power failure: defined as a total loss of input voltage.

The general categories of modern UPS systems are on-line, line-interactive or standby.^[3]In a standby ("off-line") system the load is powered directly by the input power and the backup power circuitry is only invoked when the utility power fails. For large power units, dynamic uninterruptible power supplies are sometimes used. When the mains power fails, an Eddy-current regulation maintains the power on the load as long as the flywheel's energy is exhausted. A hybrid (double conversion on demand) UPS operates as an off-line/standby UPS when power conditions are within a certain preset window. This allows the UPS to achieve very high efficiency ratings.

A motor driving a mechanically connected generator,

A hybrid rotary UPS, designed similar to an online UPS, except that it uses the flywheel in place of batteries. The rectifier drives a motor to spin the flywheel, while a generator uses the flywheel to power the inverter.

Source:wikipedia

CLI Commands

A command-line interface (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with a computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks. A command-line interpreter then receives, parses, and executes the requested user command. Upon completion, the command usually returns output to the user in the form of text lines on the CLI. A program that implements such a text interface is often called a command-line interpreter, command processor or shell, whereby the term shell, often used to describe a command-line interpreter, can be in principle any program that constitutes the user-interface, including fully graphically oriented ones—for example, the default Windows GUI is created by a shell program named EXPLORER.EXE, as defined in the SHELL=EXPLORER.EXE line in the WIN.INI configuration file.

Screenshot of the MATLAB 7.4 command-line interface and GUI.

In the case of operating systems (OS), MS-DOS and Unix each define their own set of rules that all commands must follow. A simple CLI will display a prompt, accept a "command line" typed by the user terminated by the Enter key, then execute the specified command and provide textual display of results or error messages. Advanced CLIs will validate, interpret and parameter-expand the command line before executing the specified command, and optionally capture or redirect its output.
Useful command lines can be saved by assigning a character string or alias to represent the full command, or several commands can be grouped to perform a more complex sequence — for instance, compile the program, install it, and run it — creating a single entity, called a command procedure or script which itself can be treated as a command. In some CLIs, the commands issued are not coupled to any conceptual place within a command hierarchy. A user can specify relative or absolute paths to any command or data. Examples of this include DOS, OS/2, Windows, and UNIX, which provide forms of a change directory command which allows access to any directory in the system. For example, if the CLI had two modes called interface and system, the user would enter the word 'interface' at the command prompt and then enter an interface mode, where a certain subset of commands and data are available. At this point system commands are not accessible and would not be accessible until the user explicitly exits the interface mode and enters the system mode.

Command prompt

A command prompt (or just prompt) is a sequence of (one or more) characters used in a command-line interface to indicate readiness to accept commands. In DOS's COMMAND.COM and in the Windows NT's command-line interpreter cmd.exe the prompt is modifiable by issuing a prompt command or by directly changing the value of the corresponding %PROMPT% environment variable.

[time] user@host: work_dir $

could be set by issuing the command
In RISC OS, the command prompt is a '*' symbol, and thus (OS)CLI commands are often referred to as "star commands".^[1]

Arguments

A command-line argument or parameter is an argument sent to a program being called. When a command processor is active a program is typically invoked by typing its name followed by command-line arguments (if any). For example, in Unix and Unix-like environments, an example of a command-line argument is:

Command-line option

A command-line option or simply option (also known as a flag or switch) modifies the operation of a command; the effect is determined by the command's program. Options follow the command name on the command line, separated by spaces. By appending the /owner option (to form the command directory/owner), the user can instruct the directory command to also display the ownership of the files.
Some command-line interpreters (including newer versions of DR-DOS COMMAND.COM and 4DOS) also provide pseudo-environment variables named %/% or %SWITCHAR% to allow portable batchjobs to be written.

Long path/Long program name Parameter one Parameter two ...

Long_path/Long_program_name Parameter_one Parameter_two ...,

"Long path/Long program name" "Parameter one" "Parameter two" ...

Command-line interpreter

A command-line interpreter (also called a command line shell, command language interpreter, or abbreviated as CLI) is a computer program that reads lines of text entered by a user and interprets them in the context of a given operating system or programming language.
Command-line interpreters allow users to issue various commands in a very efficient (and often terse) way. ^[2] For business application programs, text-based menus were used, but for more general interaction the command line was the interface.
From the early 1970s the Unix operating system on minicomputers pioneered the concept of a powerful command-line environment, which Unix called the "shell", with the ability to "pipe" the output of one command in as input to another, and to save and re-run strings of commands as "shell scripts" which acted like custom commands.
While most computer users now use a GUI almost exclusively, more advanced users have access to powerful command-line environments:

Scripting

Most command-line interpreters support scripting, to various extents. For a few operating systems, most notably DOS, such a command interpreter provides a more flexible command line interface than the one supplied. In other cases, such a command interpreter can present a highly customised user interface employing the user interface and input/output facilities of the language.

Recovering Lost Data: Data Recovery Software

Recovering Lost Data: Data Recovery Software

While the iPhone is a complicated device, loss of data is no new thing. However, without panicking, you can recover your lost data by using a popular data recovery software specially designed for Apple devices. Follow the steps given below:

1. Before downloading any data recovery software, make sure you stop uploading new music or image files into your iPhone. 2. Download a good data recovery software for your iPhone that is capable of searching for the deleted files onto your phone's hard-drive. Tip: After a thorough crawling, the data recovery software will recover all your data back to its original place. Some more data recovery software are lined up below:

iPhone Backup Extractor

MiniTool Power Data Recovery

Data Recovery Mac

Take the following method into consideration if you've created a backup of your iPhone's data into your PC/Mac with the help of iTunes.

Recovering Lost Data: iTunes

Just a single sync, and you have all your data backed up in iTunes.

1. The first step is to connect your iPhone with your PC in the very normal way you sync both.

2. Look for the back-up of your files on your computer. You'll find it in the C drive of your computer, unless you have saved it manually somewhere else. Here go the paths:

For Windows XP or Vista: C:\Documents and Settings\USERNAME\Application Data\Apple Computer\MobileSync\Backup

For Mac: Library/Application Support/MobileSync/Backup

3. When you're successful in following the path, you will see a filename that has an .mdbackup extension. This is your back-up. Click on it.

4. Select the option that says Restore, and your files will be sent to the phone from your PC. Note that, restoring contacts is difficult in this case, and you have to get them in a file, and manually feed them. However, it's much better than losing 'em all mysteriously.

Method Two is always advisable for the DIY kinds, and is definitely the very first option (cheapest too) for iPhone users. However, for those who know their lost files don't exist in the iTunes backup folder, Method One is highly recommended. Some of them might cost a bomb, but the results are satisfactory. As the last bit of advice, always create a backup of your data in your iTunes folder to avoid all kinds of data loss.

History Tehcnology

The use of tools by early humans was partly a process of discovery, partly of evolution. ^[22] This era of stone tool use is called the Paleolithic, or "Old stone age", and spans all of human history up to the development of agriculture approximately 12,000 years ago.

To make a stone tool, a "core" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a hammerstone. The earliest stone tools were crude, being little more than a fractured rock. Fire

^[26] The exact date of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the Cradle of Humankind suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before 1,000,000 BC;^[27] scholarly consensus indicates that Homo erectus had controlled fire by between 500,000 BC and 400,000 BC.Clothing and shelter

As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380,000 BC, humans were constructing temporary wood huts.^[31]

Neolithic through classical antiquity (10,000BC – 300AD)

The invention of polished stone axes was a major advance because it allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms.

Metal tools

The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about 8000 BC).^[39]

Energy and transport

Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of energy. It didn't take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads and fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early mass production of pottery. But it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources.

Medieval and modern history (300 AD —)

Main articles: Medieval technology, Renaissance technology, Industrial Revolution, Second industrial revolution, Productivity improving technologies (historical), and Information Technology

Scientific advancement and the discovery of new concepts later allowed for powered flight, and advancements in medicine, chemistry, physics and engineering. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a revolution in transportation with the invention of the steam-powered ship, train, airplane, and automobile. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission has led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to construct and maintain these new technologies, and entire industries have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools.

Technolgy Computer

Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. ^[1] The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include construction technology, medical technology, and information technology.
Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species' ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. The human species' use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. IBM and Sun operate more in the diversified computer systems industry which includes Information Technology (IT). The use of the term technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. The meanings of technology changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into "technology." By the 1930s, "technology" referred not to the study of the industrial arts, but to the industrial arts themselves.^[4][7] The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as a whole.^[8]Tools and machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as computer software and business methods, fall under this definition of technology.^[10]
The word "technology" can also be used to refer to a collection of techniques. When combined with another term, such as "medical technology" or "space technology", it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tools. "State-of-the-art technology" refers to the high technology available to humanity in any field.
Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture.^[11][12] Not all technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology can also help facilitate political oppression and war via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates both science and engineering, each of which formalize some aspects of technological endeavor.
The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not always clear. The development of technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering, mathematical, linguistic, and historical knowledge, to achieve some practical result.
Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering — although technology as a human activity precedes the two fields.